The terms "devil"
and "divinity" developed from the same root, Indo-European devi (Goddess)
or deva (God), which eventually became daeva (devil) in Persian.1 The Old English word divell
(devil) can be traced to the Roman words divus, divi: gods.2 Thus it appears that, from the
beginning, gods and devils were often confused with one another.
Devi was the Sanskrit root word meaning "Goddess," and was the word for many Indo-European
reference for the Great Mother. The wisdom of Shiva or Kali was addressed to the Devi as teacher;
she was also referred to as Dearly Beloved, the Shakti, a practice and tradition copied by the
New Testament. Krisna's virgin mother was her "maiden" form, Devaki. The Goddess's title as
"the Way to the Gods" was Devayani, the Divine Yoni. As the virgin mother of Mahavira she was
Devananda, the "Blessed Goddess."3 A Czechoslovakian name for the Moon-Goddess, Devana, came
from the same root, as also the Latin Diana, Minoan Diwija, Serbian Diiwica, and the Roman Diviana,
all of these meaning "The Divinity."4
Divine and devilish were germane terms, as the principal essence of the Hebrew words for
"good" and "evil" actually meant "benificent" and "hurtful."5 Gods did "evil" matters if infuriated;
devils could do "good" incidents if they were delighted. One man's god was his enemy's devil.
Armenians, at one time, would sacrifice one sheep to Jesus at Easter time and thirty sheep to
the devil, on the conjecture that the devil's authority in the here and now was greater.6
Such ideas were not atypical. Devils were often ascribed beneficent magic. There was a devil who
"maketh men witty, turneth all metals into the coin of the dominion, turneth water into wine,
and wine into water, and blood into wine, and wine into blood, and a fool into a wise man-and
he leads 33 legions of demons." A different devil "perfectly teaches the virtues of the stars,
he transformeth men, he giveth dignities, prelacies, and confirmations." Another devil "talketh
of divine virtue, he giveth true answers of things present, past, and to come, and of the divinity,
and of the creation, he deceiveth none, nor suffereth any to be tempted; he giveth dignities and
prelacies."7
Early Christians even acknowledged that the "devils" worshipped in pagan temples were recognized
to have return the sick to health.8 Tertullian9 said, Diabolus simia Dei, the Devil imitates
God; but in point of chronology there was some doubt about who was imitating whom.10
Judeo-Christian tradition attributed many "diabolic" acts to God. He was the sender of pestilence
and famine. He created a terrible hell, and its demons, which tortured human souls on his orders.
He caused violent storms, which were (and still are) called "acts of God." From the 15th century
on, the church sold waxen cakes, the Agnus Dei, stamped with a cross and advertised as sure protection
against storms and other "acts of God"; thus God was incongruously invoked to combat himself.11
God even killed himself in the person of Christ, according to the theological dogma that
they were one and the same. On the other hand, some claimed "devilish" Jews killed Christ.
Though Jews were carrying out God's ordained scheme of salvation, and doing God's will by executing
Jesus, nevertheless theology exonerated God and blamed them. Though the Old Testament God did
much "evil," even destroying many thousands of his own helpless worshippers for trivial offenses
(I Samuel 6:19), yet churchmen seldom dared to accept the Bible's own presentation of God as the
maker of evil: "I form the light, and create darkness; I make peace, and create evil; I the Lord
do all these things"(Isaiah 45:7). On the basis of this scripture, some advanced the theory that
God had deliberately created the devil before the beginning of the world, because a pre-existing
evil principle was necessary to "test the faith" of the future human.12 Yet somehow, to make
a devil was not evil if God did it.
The Persians believed God and the devil were twin brothers, born simultaneously from the womb
of the dualistic mother of Infinite Time, Zurvan. The devil (Ahriman) was cast down from heaven
to the underworld only because his sacrifice, like Cain's, was not acceptable to the older deity.
The heavenly god (Ahura Mazda) continued to reign in the heights because he knew how to make the
right sacrifices.
But the devil, not the god, was the true creator of the earth and all creatures in the mundane
world of matter. Thus the Magi prayed to him for assistance in all worldly endeavors, and revered
him as the source of their magic powers. Ahriman was worshipped in Roman times throughout northern
Europe, identified with all chthonian gods like Pluto, Saturn, or Dis Pater.13 In early Christian
mystery-plays he appeared as a wonder-working spirit, one Saint Mahown.14
The Christian devil became a composite of ancient deities in a single adaptable and adjustable
form. He had the goat-horns and hoofs of satyr-gods like Pan, Marsyas, and Dionysus; the trident
of Neptune, Hades, or Shiva; the reptilian form of Leviathan Python, or Ouroborus; the fiery form
of Agni or Helios; the female breasts of Astarte-lshtar; the wolf face of Dis, Feronius, or Fenrir;
the quadruple wings of Babylonian cherubim; the bird claws of ancestral spirits, the aves; and
all the god-names Christians had ever heard, including many secret names of their own God: Jupiter,
Mercury, Minerva, Venus, Hades, Pluto, Baal-Zebub, Lucifer, Zeus Chthonios, Sabazius, Belial,
Adonis, Sabaoth, lao, Soter, Emmanuel, Sammael.15 The devil could take any shape, even a human
one: Pope Gregory IX described him as "a pale, black-eyed youth with a melancholy aspect."[16]
At other times he was an animal composite, as on the Amulet of Bes:
"Naked genius with the head of Bes, Banked by seven heads of animals among whom are bull, lion, and ibis, and surmounted by atef crown with several horns; four wings; falcon-tail and crocodile-tail; four arms-two arms stretched out along the wings hold lances and serpents, while the third on the left seizes a lion, the fourth on the right holds sceptre and whip. The erect penis ends in a lion head; there are lionmasks on the knees, the feet are given the form of jackal-heads with pointed ears and prolonged as coiled snakes. Bes stands on an ouroboros (cosmic serpent) which contains various animals: scorpion, crocodile, tortoise."17
The devil's popular nickname Old Scratch came from a Germanic wood-spirit called a Scrat or
Waldscrat, also from a derivation of the word Skrati, an old Teutonic faun or Satyr; half-man
and half-goat, and possessed of horns. He is sometimes a protector of households known as Schraetlin
or "little Scrat." The spirit inhabited a phallic amulet based on the bisexual lingam-yoni, as
suggested by Anglo-Saxon scritta, Old English scrat, a hermaphrodite. Another nickname of the
devil, Deuce, came from Gaulish gods called Dusii, a variation of deus, "god." Again there was a
hermaphroditic connotation, since "deuce" also meant "two."[18]
Some demonologists postulated seven devils, one for each of the seven deadly sins: Lucifer
(pride), Mammon (avarice), Asmodeus (lechery), Satan (anger), Beelzebub (gluttony), Leviathan
(envy) and Belphegor (sloth). Belial, a slightly less prestigious spirit, governed such "vessels
of iniquity" as playing cards and dice.19
"Devils" and "the devil" were interchangeable. The devil was one, and also many: a monotheistic
transformation of a polytheistic concept. Christian nations asserted that all other nations worshipped
"devils" or "the devil" under many names. A 16th-century list of devil-worshipping countries
included: Tartary, China, Lapland, Finland, the Northern Islands, the East Indies, Persia, Arabia,
Anatolia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Turkey, Russia, and Norway.20 According to the 18th-century German
theologian Johann Beaumont, any person anywhere in the world who "confesseth not that Jesus Christ
is come in the flesh" belongs to the devils.21
As God incarnated himself in earthly flesh, so the devil was supposed to incarnate himself
in earthly flesh shortly before the coming of doomsday. This demonic being was usually called
Antichrist. He would be known by his Christ-like ability to perform healing miracles, such as
restoring sight to the blind.22 It was never explained how these demonic miracles were to be
distinguished from holy ones. The coming of Antichrist was constantly announced, dozens of times
in each century. Canon Moreau and contemporary churchmen reported that Antichrist was born in
1599 at Babylon, where the Jews acclaimed him as their Messiah.23 Apparently he was identified
with the Messianic Elijah for whom the Jews looked each year at Passover.
If there were any devilish attributes on which most myths agreed, they were the rather godlike
qualities of (1) superhuman intelligence, and (2) superhuman sexuality. Inquisitor Jean Bodin
wrote, "It is certain that the devils have a profound knowledge of all things. No theologian
can interpret the Holy Scriptures better than they can; no lawyer has more detailed knowledge of
testaments, contracts and actions; no physician or philosopher can better understand the composition
of the human body, and the virtues of the heavens, the stars, birds and fishes, trees and herbs,
metals and stones." Inquisitor Nicholas Remy said the devil had complete knowledge of everything
human beings could not explain. "Everything which is unknown lies . . . in the cursed domain of
demonology; for there are no unexplained facts. Whatever is not normal is due to the Devil."24
No Christian was permitted to disbelieve in the devil. His credibility rested on the same
foundation as that of God. Indeed, the very concept of salvation depended on the devil. If there
had been no Tempter, there was no original sin, no fall, no hell, no need of a redeemer or a church.
De Givry correctly said, "If the Satanic concept is tampered with, the whole edifice laboriously
erected by the Fathers of the Church crumbles to the ground."25
The devil was essential to the dualistic theology that Christianity copied from Persia. If
the world was divided between the forces of good and evil, an evil deity was necessary; otherwise
evil would have to be blamed on God. Logically, a god couldn't be both all-good and all-powerful.
If God could make a world without evil, and would not, he couldn't be all-good. If God wanted
to make a world without evil, and could not, he couldn't be all-powerful. The only solution-not
a good one, but the only possible one-was to supply God with an evenly matched adversary, to be
responsible for evil. Thus theologians thought it the worst heresy, "contrary to the true faith,"
to suggest that devils existed only in the ignorant imagination.26 The devil was so real to
Martin Luther that he accosted him one evening and threw an inkpot at him.27
It was a severe theological problem to account for God's apparent helplessness to halt the devil's
activity. Though Lucifer or Satan was supposed to have been utterly defeated and immobilized during
the famous War in Heaven, yet he was so lively that the War seemed to have caused him nothing more
than a momentary inconvenience. Theologians could only propose that God "permitted" the devil's freedom
of action. They said, "It is not the witch's ointment nor her incantation that makes her forked stick
fly through the air, but the power of the devil, allowed by God."28 They never explained why the
church punished what God allowed.
Much semantic hairsplitting went into defining relationships between the devil, God, and
humanity, such as the distinction between sorcery and witchcraft. Sorcery was evoking spirits
to "carry out those powers which God permitted the Devil." Witchcraft was evoking spirits to
"commit acts against His ruling," In practice, a man who asked the devil to help him seduce a
woman was not guilty of any crime, because sex was under the devil's jurisdiction, by God's
order. Devils who killed children did nothing sinful, for God permitted them to kill children
"in order to punish their parents."29 On the other hand, a woman who tried to save her dying
child with witch-herbs was mortally guilty and deserved the death penalty.30
Theologians argued that all works of witches were brought about by the devil with God's
permission. Even a witch who did only good works, like healing the sick, must suffer the same
death as a witch whose acts were harmful.31 Thus witches were placed in a no-win situation.
Once a man beat a witch for casting a spell on his son, and forced her to remove the spell.
Pope Benedict XIV ruled that the witch committed a double sin by using the devil's power twice,
even though she did it under coercion the second time. Benedict carefully stipulated that the
man who beat her was entirely innocent of wrongdoing.32
The church created the idea that witches were the devil's helpers, involved in a vast plot
to undermine Christian society. This theory was the real root of the witch mania. The people
were generally indifferent to the priests' witch-hunting until this theory was forced on them
by propaganda from the pulpit, which deliberately played on their fear of the devil after
stimulating it in the first place.33
It sometimes happened that churchmen themselves consulted the devil, without paying the
same penalties they inflicted on laypersons. Some miracle-working heretics were convicted by
the bishop of Besançon in 1170, on the evidence of none other than Satan, interviewed by the
bishop with the help of a priest skilled in necromancy. Satan assured the bishop that the accused
were indeed his servants, so they were sent to the stake.34
The devil was useful to clergymen-or anyone else-seeking an excuse for lecherous behavior.
According to one story:
"The devil transformed himself into the appearance of St. Silvanus, Bishop of Nazareth, a friend of St. Jerome. And this devil approached a noble woman by night in her bed and began first to provoke and entice her with lewd words, and then invited her to perform the sinful act. And when she called out, the devil in the form of the saintly Bishop hid under the woman's bed, and being sought for and found there, he in lickerish language declared lyingly that he was Bishop Silvanus. On the morrow therefore, when the devil had disappeared, the holy man was scandalously defamed."35
Some sly fellows used the devil to defraud. There was a Cornishman who convinced his neighbors
that he had sold his soul to the devil. Taking a few coins to the tavern each night, he pretended
to receive money from the devil to pay for his drink. He would thrust his hat up the chimney,
calling on his diabolic friend; and the coins appeared in his hat. The superstitious innkeeper
wouldn't touch the devil's money, so the Cornishman drank all evening for free.36
The devilish pact was not a joke, however; it was an essential ingredient of the devil-mythology
that killed millions during six centuries of witch-hunting. Yet it was logically absurd. If the
devil received the soul of every sinner, as the church taught, he had no need to secure it with
a "pact"; it would be his anyway. As for the sinners themselves, they seemed to derive little
benefit from their side of the contract, as Scot pointed out: any woman in her right mind would
reject the devil's bargain, saying, "Why should I hearken to you, when you will deceive me? Did
you not promise my neighbor Mother Dutton to save and rescue her; and yet lo she is hanged!"37
Early in the Christian era there were no very severe punishments for making a pact with the
devil. The Golden Legend tells of a young man who signed over his soul to the devil to win the
love of a certain lady. Later, St. Basil prayed over the young man and retrieved his contract,
a piece of paper which dropped from an upper balcony of the church, "fluttered down through the
air and fell into his hands, in the sight of all." The paper was torn up and the youth set free.38
Several popes were said to have made a diabolic pact, including one who may have ideological
roots in a genuine pagan tradition: Silvester II. His real name was Gerbert de Aurillac. He grew
up in a France still permeated by Dianic and druidic fairy-religion, where Aphrodite was worshipped
at Rouen up to the 12th century, and the Moon-goddess's groves attracted pilgrims up to the
14th. Silvester chose a papal name meaning "spirit of the grove," and it was said he had a fairy
mistress named Meridiana (Mary-Diana), who taught him the secrets of magic.39 According to
Cardinal Benno and William of Malmesbury, Silvester signed a pact with the devil to achieve the
papal throne, and the devil gave it to him.40
The truth about Pope Silvester was that he had unusually intellectual tastes for his time.
He remarked that, for the frustrations and difficulties of his life, "philosophy was the only
cure."41 In his time, "philosophy" didn't mean Christian theology. It meant pagan literature,
natural science, and Hermetism.
"The list of great men in those centuries charged with magic . . . is astounding; it includes every man of real mark, and in the midst of them stands one of the most thoughtful popes, Silvester II (Gerbert), and the foremost of medieval thinkers on natural science, Albert the Great. It came to be the accepted idea that, as soon as a man conceived a wish to study the works of God, his first step must be a league with the devil."42
Another "devilish" philosopher was Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim, historiographer
to Emperor Charles V, author of the famous treatise on Hermetism, De occulta philosophia. The
church found his works detestable and severely reprimanded him for trying to defend accused witches,
but his wealthy patrons protected him from arrest: only once he was imprisoned for debt, not
heresy.43 He called magic the perfect science, and implied as the Gnostic heretics did that
knowledge came to man not as a gift of God but as a gift of the devil.
Agrippa's life story contributed to the legend of Faust, around which centered many thrilling
tales of the devil's pact. The real Faust was not impressive. As an obscure schoolmaster in
Kreuznach, he was dismissed from his post in 1507 on a charge of sodomy.44 Six years later he
reappeared as an astrologer and soothsayer calling himself the Demigod of Heidelberg. Later,
citizens of Munster knew him as "the famous necromancer, Dr. Faustus." Ultimately, his fame
rested not on any of his doings but on the so-called Faustian books, Höllenzwänge, "Harrowings
of Hell," which he didn't write. These anonymous works grew into a large body of literature
professing to tell the reader how to make a pact with the devil, work magic, find buried
treasure, win love and fortune, and finally renounce the pact in time to save one's soul.
Predictably, such books were enormously popular. Two books really written by Agrippa von
Nettesheim to win the favor of Margaret of Austria, The Superiority of Women and The Nobility
of the Female Sex, were declared heretical and forbidden publication by the clergy.45
Magic books nearly always gave formulae for negotiating with the devil. Le Dragon Rouge46
told the aspiring wizard to address "Emperor Lucifer, master of all the rebellious spirits,"
and his ministers Lucifuge Rofocale, Prince Beelzebub, and Count Ashtoreth.47 Magic Papyri48
that had been early models for these books often confused the names and attributes of Jehovah
and Lucifer, speaking of "God the light-bringer (Lucifer), invincible, who knoweth what is in
the heart of all life, who of the dust hath formed the race of men."49 We have seen the same
kind of confusion in Christian theology itself. Yet in 14th-century Toulouse, witches were burned
for saying what was actually a tenet of the church's dualism: that "God and the Devil were
completely equal, the former reigning over the sky and the latter the earth; all souls which
the Devil managed to seduce were lost to the Most High God and lived perpetually on earth or in
the air."50
Even up to the 20th century, churchmen insisted on the devilish pact. Father Herbert
Thurston51 wrote: "In the face of Holy Scripture and the teaching of the Fathers and theologians
the abstract possibility of a pact with the Devil and of a diabolical interference in human
affairs can hardly be denied."52 But the Fathers and theologians never explained how the devil
could profit from the pact, other than to receive a "soul" that was his anyway. As Samuel Butler
said, no one heard the devil's side of any story, because God wrote all the books.53
One might think an "enlightened" modern society would have given up the idea of the devil.
But a poll taken in 1978 showed "two out of five Americans believe in devils."54 The strange
viability of devils may arise from their usefulness in assuaging the guilt of God and man.
"Both Judaism and Christianity have maintained that God must be given the credit for all the
goodness in human history, and that men must take the blame for all the evil."55 Thus, the
real purpose of the devil was to take some of this heavy responsibility off frail human shoulders.
In short: the devil, not Christ, was the true scapegoat who assumed the burden of men's sins.
References and Notes:
- Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology. London: Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd., 1968. Pg. 317.
- Scot, Reginald. Discoverie of Witchcraft. Yorkshire, England: Rowmand & Littlefield, 1973. Pg. 444.
- Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology. London: Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd., 1968. Pg. 317.
- Thorsten, Geraldine. God Herself: The Feminine Roots of Astrology. New York: Avon Books, 1981. Pg. 361.
- Tennant, F.R. The Sources of the Doctrines of the Fall and Original Sin. New York: Schocken Books, 1968. Pg. 13.
- Briffault, Robert. The Mothers (3 vols.). New York: Macmillan, 1927. Vol. 2, Pg. 564.
- Scot, Reginald. Discoverie of Witchcraft. Yorkshire, England: Rowmand & Littlefield, 1973. Pg. 323-25.
- Smith, John Holland. Constantine the Great. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971. Pg. 287.
- Tertulian (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus) Influential early Christian writer and father of the church, circa 155-220 C.E., born in Cartthage of Pagan parents.
- Summers, Montague. The Vampire, His Kith and Kin. New York: University Books, Inc., 1960. Pg. 56.
- Smith, Homer. Man and His Gods. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1952. Pg. 276.
- Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964. Pg. 121.
- Reinach, Salomon. Orpheus. New York: Horace Liveright, Inc., 1930. Pg. 72.
- Hazlitt, W. Carew. Faiths and Folklore of the British Isles (2 Vols.) New York: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1965. Pg. 176.
- de Voragine, Jacobus. The Golden Legend. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1941. Pg. 670; Wedeck, Harry E. A Treasury of Witchcraft. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1964. Pg. 95.
- Haining, Peter. Witchcraft and Black Magic. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1972. Pg. 59.
- Lindsay, Jack. The Origins of Astrology. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1971. Pg. 197.
- Knight, Richard Payne. A Discourse on the Worship of Priapus. New York: University Books, Inc., 1974. Pg. 152.
- Robbins, Rossell Hope. Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology. New York: Crown Publishers, 1959. Pg. 127.
- Scot, Reginald. Discoverie of Witchcraft. Yorkshire, England: Rowmand & Littlefield, 1973. Pg. 521, 523.
- Silberer, Herbert. Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the Occult Arts. New York: Dover Publications, 1971. Pg. 286.
- Gifford, Edward S., Jr. The Evil Eye. New York: MacMillan, 1958. Pg. 120.
- Baring-Gould, Sabine. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages. New York: University Books, Inc., 1967. Pg. 168.
- Robbins, Rossell Hope. Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology. New York: Crown Publishers, 1959. Pgs. 127,408.
- de Givry, Grillot. Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy. New York: Dover Publications, 1971. Pg. 49.
- Cavendish, Richard. The Powers of Evil. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1975. Pgs. 24, 139.
- de Givry, Grillot. Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy. New York: Dover Publications, 1971. Pg. 139.
- Robbins, Rossell Hope. Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology. New York: Crown Publishers, 1959. Pg. 213.
- Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964. Pg. 146.
- Haining, Peter. Witchcraft and Black Magic. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1972. Pg. 85.
- Robbins, Rossell Hope. Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology. New York: Crown Publishers, 1959. Pg. 213.
- Summers, Montague. The Werewolf. New York: Bell Publishing Co. No Date. Pg. 36.
- Robbins, Rossell Hope. Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology. New York: Crown Publishers, 1959. Pg. 218.
- Lea, Henry Charles. The Inquisition of the Middle Ages. New York: Citadel Press, 1954; unabridged version published by Macmillan, New York 1961. Pg. 2.
- Kramer, Heinrich & Sprenger, James. Malleus Maleficarum. New York: Dover Publ;ications, 1971. Pg. 134.
- Hazlitt, W. Carew. Faiths and Folklore of the British Isles (2 Vols.) New York: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1965. Pg. 647.
- Scot, Reginald. Discoverie of Witchcraft. Yorkshire, England: Rowmand & Littlefield, 1973. Pg. 40.
- de Voragine, Jacobus. The Golden Legend. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1941. Pg. 312.
- Gaster, Theodor. Myth, Legend and Custom in the Old Testament. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. Pg. 771.
- Woods, William. A History of the Devil. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1974. Pg. 89.
- Encycyclopedia Britannica, Third Edition, 1970. "Silvester."
- White, Andrew D. A History of the Welfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (2 vols.). New York: GeorgeBraziller, 1955. Pgs. 1, 386.
- Encycyclopedia Britannica, Third Edition, 1970. "Agrippa, Heinrich Cornelius."
- Encycyclopedia Britannica, Third Edition, 1970. "Faust."
- Seligmann, Kurt. Magic, Supernaturalism and Religion. New York: Pantheon Books, Inc., 1948. Pg. 212.
- Le Dragon Rouge, ou l'art de commander les esprits celestes, aeriens, terrestres, infernaux A grimoire published at Avignon, dated 1522. The date may have been incorrect, with the actual date being much later.
- de Givry, Grillot. Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy. New York: Dover Publications, 1971. Pg. 117.
- Magic Papyri Collections of exorcisms, invocations, charms, and spells widely circulated during the early Christian era, used as bases for later grimoires and Hermetic texts.
- Barrett, C.K. The New Testament Background. New York: Harper & Row, 1961. Pg. 32.
- Baroja, Julio Caro. The World of Witches. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965. Pg. 85.
- Father Herbert Thurston S.J. Early 20th-century writer on the subject of occultism.
- Summers, Montague. The History of Witchcraft and Demonology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973. Pg. 63.
- Ebon, Martin. Witchcraft Today. New York: New American Library, 1971. Pg. 86.
- Newsweek, June 26, 1978. Pg. 32.
- Muller, Herbert J. The Uses of the Past. New York: New American Library, 1954. Pg. 87.